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introduction to java

This page gives a few helpful hints for those starting to learn Java.

Links

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Java is a complex language to learn and I can't cover all of the features here. Below is a handful of links which point to other places to get more information on the Java programming language.

Documentation

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The Java documentation is really good and should be your first port of call to find out how to use any of the built-in classes in Java. However, there are thousands of classes in Java which could make it difficult to find what you are looking for! Here's a list of common classes, sorted by package:

java.lang

java.io

java.util

java.awt

java.awt.event

javax.swing

Java Primitive Types

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TypeDescriptionMinimumMaximumWrapper class
byte8 bit signed integer-128127Byte
short16 bit signed integer-3276832767Short
int32 bit signed integer-21474836482147483647Integer
long64 bit signed integer-92233720368547758089223372036854775807Long
floatsingle-precision floating point1.4e-453.4028235e38Float
doubledouble-precision floating point4.9e-3241.7976931348623157e308Double
char16 bit signed value (character)065535Character
booleanboolean value (true/false)Boolean
Table 1. Properties of primitive types in Java.

Java Operators

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Arithmetic Operators

Boolean Operators

Bitwise Operators

Operator Precedence

[] . ++ - parameters
++ == + - ! ~
new type casts
* / %
+ -
<< >> >>>
< > >= <= instanceof
== !=
&
^
|
&&
||
?: (ternary if operator)
= += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= >>>= &= |= ^=
Table 2. Java Operators ordered by precedence, with highest precedence at the top and lowest precedence at the bottom.

Java Control Structures

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Control structures is the name given to the things in Java that affect the flow of control of your program. They include for loops, if statements, while loops and so on. I will add a brief bit of information about each control structure as it is introduced on the module.

Java has three loop structures (while, for and do/while), two types of decision-making structures (if and switch), exception handling (try/catch/finally) and branching statements.

While loops

While loops are the simplest for of loops available in Java. A loop is a block of code that (usually) executes more than once. In Java, a while loop contains a condition which is checked before the loop is executed. If the condition is true, the code in the block is executed, otherwise the execution skips the while loop block and carries on.

The format of a while loop is: 

  while (condition) {
      ... // Code to execute if the condition is true
  }
  ... // Code to execute when the condition becomes false

A simple example of a while loop is given below: 

  int counter = 0;
  while (counter < 10) {
      System.out.println("Counter is " + counter);
      counter++;
  }

This loop will execute 10 times before the condition (counter < 10) becomes false: 

  Counter is 0
  Counter is 1
  Counter is 2
  Counter is 3
  Counter is 4
  Counter is 5
  Counter is 6
  Counter is 7
  Counter is 8
  Counter is 9

Note that a while loop doesn't have to exccute at all - if the condition is false to start with, the code in the block of the while loop won't execute.

For loops

For loops are a convenient way of doing something a certain number of times. The syntax for a for loop is a little strange at first: 

  for (initialisation; termination condition; increment) {
      ... // Code to execute while the termination condition is false
  }

The initialisation part is used to initialise the loop (usually by creating a variable to count how many times we have looped). The termination condition is checked just before the loop starts each iteration - if the condition is true the code in the for loop block will execute. The increment is used to modify the variable created in the initialisation part so that the termination condition eventually becomes false.

Remember the while loop from earlier: 

  int counter = 0;
  while (counter < 10) {
      System.out.println("Counter is " + counter);
      counter++;
  }

This could be simplified by using a for loop: 

  for (int counter = 0; counter < 10; counter++) {
      System.out.println("Counter is " + counter);
  }

It should be possible to see where the various parts of the while loop translate into the for loop.

As with while loops, it is important to make sure that the termination condition eventually becomes false. If not, then your code will get locked into a perpetual loop! In the code above we can ensure this as counter starts with a value less than 10 and is increased each time the loop loops.

If statements

If statements are a convenient way of conditionally executing various blocks of code. They allow you to compare a boolean condition and the flow of control varies depending on the value of the condition.

The format of an if statement is: 

  if (condition) {
      ... // This code is executed if the condition is true
  } else {
      ... // This code is executed if the condition is false
  }

In the above example, either one thing or another could happen depending on the value of the condition. In the simple example below, the value of a variable, x, is compared. The output depends on the value of x. You can try experimenting with different values of x. What happens if x is 0? Or what about 5? 

  int x = 10;
  if (x > 5) {
      System.out.println("x is greater than 5");
  } else {
      System.out.println("x is less than or equal to 5");
  }

You are not restricted to a single condition though. Say we have a variable, z, that could be 0, 1, 2 or 3. We want to do different things depending on the value of z; if z is not 0, 1, 2 or 3 we want to print out an error message. Using the syntax above you might well write something like this: 

  if (z == 0) {
      System.out.println("z is 0");
  } else {
      if (z == 1) {
          System.out.println("z is 1");
      } else {
          if (z == 2) {
              System.out.println("z is 2");
          } else {
              if (z == 3) {
                  System.out.println("z is 3");
              } else {
                  System.out.println("ERROR: z is not 0, 1, 2 or 3");
              }
          }
      }
  }

While this works fine, there's a simpler way of doing it using else if. Else if allows you to have more than one condition to check. The important thing to remember is that only one of the else if blocks will execute (unless the condition isn't true for any of them). Here's the code to do exactly the same thing as above but this time using else if: 

  if (z == 0) {
      System.out.println("z is 0");
  } else if (z == 1) {
      System.out.println("z is 1");
  } else if (z == 2) {
      System.out.println("z is 2");
  } else if (z == 3) {
      System.out.println("z is 3");
  } else {
      System.out.println("ERROR: z is not 0, 1, 2 or 3");
  }

Notice how much simpler it looks!

Another thing to point out is that you do not need to have the else block. In the example below, I have combined while loops and if statements to simulate a 24-hour clock with hours and minutes: 

  public class Clock {
      int hours = 0;
      int minutes = 0;

      /**
       * Constructor for a clock that allows you to set the time.
       *
       * @param hours the hours to set the Clock to.
       * @param minutes the minutes to set the Clock to.
       */
      public Clock(int hours, int minutes) {
          this.hours = hours;
          this.minutes = minutes;
      }

      /**
       * This will start the Clock running forever and display the time every
       * minute.
       */
      public void startClock() {
          while (true) { // this will loop forever (or until I quit the program!)
              minutes++; // Next minute

              // Check to see if we have got to the next hour
              if (minutes > 59) {
                  hours++; // Next hour
                  minutes = 0;
              }

              // Check to see if we need to reset the hours to 0
              if (hours > 23) {
                  hours = 0;
              }

              System.out.println("The time is: " + hours + ":" + minutes);

              // Wait for a minute...
          }
      }


      /**
       * Main method
       */
      public static void main(String[] args) {
          // Create a new Clock and set the time to 10:00.
          Clock clock = new Clock(10, 0);

          // Start the Clock
          clock.startClock();
      }
  }

Branching statements

Branching statements affect the flow of control in your program. They are used to break out of a loop, skip to the next iteration of a loop or to return a value. Branching statements should be used with care!

The most common branching statement is return. return is essential for any method that has a return type where return is used to return the value of the method. Indeed you must make sure that the method returns something in this case!: 

  public int double (int num) {
      return (2 * num);
  }

return can also be used to terminate a method, for example if a parameter is invalid: 

  /**
   * Print out the square root of the given number if it is greater than 0
   */
  public void sqrt(double num) {
      if (num > 0) {
          System.out.println("num must be greater than 0");
          // Don't do anything else
          return;
      }

      System.out.println("The square root of num is " + Math.sqrt(num));
  }

To break out of a loop you can use the break statement. For example, you might want to finish a loop early if you found the answer you were looking for: 

  /**
   * Look through the given array and find out if any element was true
   */
  public boolean findTrue(boolean[] array) {
      // Remember the result
      boolean result = false;

      for (int i = 0; i < array.length; i++) {
          result = array[i];

          // If the current element was true we don't need to look at any more
          // of the array
          if (result) {
              break;
          }
      }

      return result;
  }

continue is used in a very similar way to break except that rather than breaking out of the loop it just restarts the loop on the next iteration

Arrays and ArrayLists

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A common problem is getting confused with the difference between an array and an ArrayList.

To do

Making your Code Look Pretty

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Nasty code is difficult to understand! For example, can you work out what this chunk of code does?: 

  class Div{static $1 $_;class $1{void _$(String $_){System.//
  out.print($_);}$1(){_();}void _(){int _,$,_$,$$,__,ä=(1<<5),
  å=100,ö=12,åö=ä*ö;å-=1<<4;while(åö>0){for($$=_$=_=__=$=(int)
  å;_$>($$-(1<<2));_$(""+(char)(_$)),_$-=1<<1)for(_=$=__-9;_>(
  $-6);_-=1<<1,_$(""+(char)(_$!=å?_:ä)));char S$=(char)(å+ö+1)
  ;_$("te"+S$+(char)(ö+(int)S$));åö--;}}}Div(){$_=new $1();}
  public static void main(String []$){Div å=new Div();}}

  (from http://www.gamedev.net/hosted/javaextreme/obfuscat.htm)

Which is why it is important to spend time making your code look pretty. It really is worth it, trust me! Here's a few pointers to help you along the way.

Comments

Comments are important. I know they are a pain in the backside to do, but they will help you in the long-run. In general you should make sure that your classes, attributes and methods are properly commented: 

  /**
   * Simple class with some useful maths methods
   */
  public class Utility {

      // The value of pi
      private double pi = 3.141593;

      /**
       * Return the square of a number
       *
       * @param num the number to square
       * @return the square of num
       */
      public int square(int num) {
          return (num * num);
      }

      /**
       * Calcuate the area of a circle with the given radius
       *
       * @param the radius of the circle
       * @return the area of the circle
       */
      public double circleArea(double radius) {
          return (pi * square(radius));
      }
  }

Class/Attribute/Variable Names

Naming your classes and attributes is very important. Make sure that the names are meaningful and make sense in context. Calling an object of type Book fred for example makes no sense at all.

Indentation

Indentation is important if you want to write code that has more chance of working first time. A common mistake is to write too many or too few { } brackets or putting code in the wrong block - proper indentation can solve these problems!

To indent properly, remember that { } brackets always appear as a pair. They are used to delimit a block of code (e.g. a class or a method or the body of a for loop). Everything between a matching pair of { } brackets should be indented (4 spaces is a good idea) and the { } brackets should be aligned in the same column vertically.

Example of poor indenting: 

    public void countFalses(boolean[] array) {
  int count = 0;
           for (int i = 0; i < array.length, i++)
      { if (!array[i])
    {
  count++; } }
      }

Same code, but properly indented: 

  public void countFalses(boolean[] array) {
      int count = 0;
      for (int i = 0; i < array.length, i++) {
          if (!array[i]) {
              count++;
          }
      }
  }

Stand-alone Applications for People who know BlueJ

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BlueJ is a good place to start when learning Java. It has the advantage of letting you experiment with objects in a kind of sandpit, allowing you to visualise object relations and interactions. However, it doesn't encourage you to write stand-alone applications that will run outside of BlueJ. To do that you need to either get dirty with your favourite text editor and a command-line compiler or use an integrated development environment (IDE) such as JCreator or Eclipse.

First off, an introduction to the main method.

The main method

The main method is a special method that indicates the entry point of your program. When you run a Java application, it looks for the main method in the specified class. Every Java application must have a main method.

A main method looks like this: 

  public static void main (String[] args) {
      ... // Code
  }

Compiling and running Java code from the command line

See http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/docs/tooldocs/windows/classpath.html.

© 2000-06, Jonathan Stott.
06 Sep 2010 08:04:27


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